An Italian cameo bracelet representing the days of the week by their eponymous deities (mid-19th century, Walters Art Museum)
Circular diagrams showing the division of the day and of the week, from a Carolingian ms. (Clm 14456 fol. 71r) of St. Emmeram Abbey. The week is divided into seven days, and each day into 96 puncta (quarter-hours), 240 minuta (tenths of an hour) and 960 momenta (40th parts of an hour).
A week is a time unit equal to seven days. It is the standard time period used for cycles of rest days in most parts of the world, mostly alongside—although not strictly part of—the Gregorian calendar.
In many languages, the days of the week are named after classical planets or gods of a pantheon. In English, the names are Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday.
ISO 8601 includes the ISO week date system, a numbering system for weeks within a given year – each week begins on a Monday and is associated with the year that contains that week's Thursday (so that if a year starts in a long weekend Friday–Sunday, week number one of the year will start after that). ISO 8601 assigns numbers to the days of the week, running from 1 to 7 for Monday through to Sunday.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | Saturday | Sunday |
The term 'week' is sometimes expanded to refer to other time units comprising a few days, such as the nundinal cycle of the ancient Roman calendar, the 'work week', or 'school week' referring only to the days spent on those activities.
- 4History
- 4.4Adoption in Asia
- 6'Weeks' in other calendars
Name[edit]
The English word week comes from the Old Englishwice, ultimately from a Common Germanic*wikōn-, from a root *wik- 'turn, move, change'. The Germanic word probably had a wider meaning prior to the adoption of the Roman calendar, perhaps 'succession series', as suggested by Gothicwikō translating taxis 'order' in Luke 1:8.
The seven-day week is named in many languages by a word derived from 'seven'. The archaismsennight ('seven-night') preserves the old Germanic practice of reckoning time by nights, as in the more common fortnight ('fourteen-night').[1]Hebdomad and hebdomadal week both derive from the Greekhebdomás (ἑβδομάς, 'a seven'). The obsolete septimane is cognate with the Romance terms derived from Latinseptimana ('a seven').
Slavic has a formation *tъ(žь)dьnь (Serbian тједан, Croatian tjedan, Ukrainian тиждень, Czech týden, Polish tydzień), from *tъ 'this' + *dьnь 'day'. Chinese has 星期, as it were 'planetarytime unit'.
Definition and duration[edit]
A week is defined as an interval of exactly seven days,[a] so that technically, except at daylight saving time transitions or leap seconds,
- 1 week = 7 days = 168 hours = 10,080 minutes = 604,800 seconds.
With respect to the Gregorian calendar:
- 1 Gregorian calendar year = 52 weeks + 1 day (2 days in a leap year)
- 1 week = 1600⁄6957 ≈ 22.9984% of an average Gregorian month
In a Gregorian mean year, there are 365.2425 days, and thus exactly 5271⁄400 or 52.1775 weeks (unlike the Julian year of 365.25 days or 525⁄28 ≈ 52.1786 weeks, which cannot be represented by a finite decimal expansion). There are exactly 20,871 weeks in 400 Gregorian years, so 19 June 1619 was a Wednesday just as was 19 June 2019.
Relative to the path of the Moon, a week is 23.659% of an average lunation or 94.637% of an average quarter lunation.
Historically, the system of dominical letters (letters A to G identifying the weekday of the first day of a given year) has been used to facilitate calculation of the day of week.The day of the week can be easily calculated given a date's Julian day number (JD, i.e. the integer value at noonUT):Adding one to the remainder after dividing the Julian day number by seven (JD modulo 7 + 1) yields that date's ISO 8601 day of the week (for example, the Julian day number of 19 June 2019 is 2458654. Calculating (2458654 mod 7 + 1) yields 3, corresponding to Wednesday.).[2]
Days of the week[edit]
Schematic comparison of the ordering of the classical planets (arranged in a circle) and the sequence of days in the week (forming a {7/3} heptagram within the circle).
The days of the week were originally named for the classical planets. This naming system persisted alongside an 'ecclesiastical' tradition of numbering the days, in ecclesiastical Latin beginning with dominica (the Lord's Day) as the first day. The Greco-Roman gods associated with the classical planets were rendered in their interpretatio germanica at some point during the late Roman Empire, yielding the Germanic tradition of names based on indigenous deities.
The ordering of the weekday names is not the classical order of the planets (by distance in the planetary spheres model, nor, equivalently, by their apparent speed of movement in the night sky). Instead, the planetary hours systems resulted in succeeding days being named for planets that are three places apart in their traditional listing. This characteristic was apparently discussed in Plutarch in a treatise written in c. AD 100, which is reported to have addressed the question of Why are the days named after the planets reckoned in a different order from the actual order? (the text of Plutarch's treatise has been lost).[3]
Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | Saturday | Sunday | |
Planet | Moon | Mars | Mercury | Jupiter | Venus | Saturn | Sun |
Greco-Roman deity | Selene-Luna | Ares-Mars | Hermes-Mercury | Zeus-Jupiter | Aphrodite-Venus | Cronus-Saturn | Helios-Sol |
Greek: | ἡμέρα Σελήνης | ἡμέρα Ἄρεως | ἡμέρα Ἑρμοῦ | ἡμέρα Διός | ἡμέρα Ἀφροδίτης | ἡμέρα Κρόνου | ἡμέρα Ἡλίου |
Latin: | dies Lūnae | dies Martis | dies Mercuriī | dies Iovis | dies Veneris | dies Saturnī | dies Sōlis |
interpretatio germanica | Moon | Tiwaz | Wodanaz | Þunraz | Frige | -- | Sun |
Old English | mōnandæg | tiwesdæg | wōdnesdæg | þunresdæg | frīgedæg | sæterndæg | sunnandæg |
An ecclesiastical, non-astrological, system of numbering the days of the week was adopted in Late Antiquity. This model also seems to have influenced (presumably via Gothic) the designation of Wednesday as 'mid-week' in Old High German (mittawehha) and Old Church Slavonic (срѣда). Old Church Slavonic may have also modeled the name of Monday, понєдѣльникъ, after the Latin feria secunda.[4] The ecclesiastical system became prevalent in Eastern Christianity, but in the Latin West it remains extant only in modern Icelandic, Galician, and Portuguese.[5]
1. Sunday (Christian Sabbath) | 2. Monday | 3. Tuesday | 4. Wednesday | 5. Thursday | 6. Friday (Muslim Sabbath) | 7. Saturday (Jewish Sabbath) | |
Greek | Κυριακὴ ἡμέρα /kiriaki iméra/ | Δευτέρα ἡμέρα /devtéra iméra/ | Τρίτη ἡμέρα /tríti iméra/ | Τετάρτη ἡμέρα /tetárti iméra/ | Πέμπτη ἡμέρα /pémpti iméra/ | Παρασκευὴ ἡμέρα /paraskevi iméra/[6] | Σάββατον /sáb:aton/ |
Latin | [dies] dominica; rarely feria prima, feria dominica | feria secunda | feria tertia | feria quarta; rarely media septimana | feria quinta | feria sexta | Sabbatum; dies sabbatinus, dies Sabbati; rarely feria septima, feria Sabbati |
History[edit]
A continuous seven-day cycle that runs throughout history paying no attention whatsoever to the phases of the moon was first practised in Judaism, dated to the 6th century BC at the latest.[7][8]
There are several hypotheses concerning the origin of the biblical seven-day cycle.
Friedrich Delitzsch and others suggested that the seven-day week being approximately a quarter of a lunation is the implicit astronomical origin of the seven-day week,[9] and indeed the Babylonian calendar used intercalary days to synchronize the last week of a month with the new moon.[10] According to this theory, the Jewish week was adopted from the Babylonians while removing the moon-dependency.
However, Niels-Erik Andreasen, Jeffrey H. Tigay, and others claimed that the Biblical Sabbath is mentioned as a day of rest in some of the earliest layers of the Pentateuch dated to the 9th century BC at the latest, centuries before Judea's Babylonian exile. They also find the resemblance between the Biblical Sabbath and the Babylonian system to be weak. Therefore, they suggested that the seven-day week may reflect an independent Israelite tradition.[11][12][13][14] Tigay writes:
It is clear that among neighboring nations that were in position to have an influence over Israel – and in fact which did influence it in various matters – there is no precise parallel to the Israelite Sabbatical week. This leads to the conclusion that the Sabbatical week, which is as unique to Israel as the Sabbath from which it flows, is an independent Israelite creation.[13][15]
The seven-day week seems to have been adopted, at different stages, by the Persian Empire, in Hellenistic astrology, and (via Greek transmission) in Gupta India and Tang China.[b][citation needed]The Babylonian system was received by the Greeks in the 4th century BC (notably via Eudoxus of Cnidus). However the designation of the seven days of the week to the seven planets is an innovation introduced in the time of Augustus.[17] The astrological concept of planetary hours is rather an original innovation of Hellenistic astrology, probably first conceived in the 2nd century BC.[18]
The seven-day week was widely known throughout the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD,[17] along with references to the Jewish Sabbath by Roman scholars such as Seneca and Ovid.[19] When the seven-day week came into use in Rome during the early imperial period, it did not immediately replace the older eight-day nundinal system.[20] The nundinal system had probably fallen out of use by the time Emperor Constantine adopted the seven-day week for official use in CE 321, making the Day of the Sun (dies Solis) a legal holiday.[21]
Ancient Near East[edit]
The earliest evidence of an astrological significance of a seven-day period is connected to Gudea, priest-king of Lagash in Sumer during the Gutian dynasty, who built a seven-room temple, which he dedicated with a seven-day festival. In the flood story of the Assyro-Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh the storm lasts for seven days, the dove is sent out after seven days, and the Noah-like character of Utnapishtim leaves the ark seven days after it reaches firm ground.[c]
It seems likely that the Hebrew seven-day week is based on the Babylonian tradition, although going through certain adaptations.[contradictory]George Aaron Barton speculated that the seven-day creation account of Genesis is connected to the Babylonian creation epic, Enûma Eliš, which is recorded on seven tablets.[25]
Counting from the new moon, the Babylonians celebrated the 7th, 14th, 21st and 28th as 'holy-days', also called 'evil days' (meaning 'unsuitable' for prohibited activities). On these days, officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to 'make a wish', and at least the 28th was known as a 'rest-day'.[26]On each of them, offerings were made to a different god and goddess.
In a frequently-quoted suggestion going back to the early 20th century,[27] the Hebrew Sabbath is compared to the Sumerian sa-bat 'mid-rest', a term for the full moon. The Sumerian term has been reconstructed as rendered Sapattum or Sabattum in Babylonian, possibly present in the lost fifth tablet of the Enûma Eliš, tentatively reconstructed[according to whom?] '[Sa]bbath shalt thou then encounter, mid[month]ly'.[26]
Achaemenid period[edit]
The Zoroastrian calendar follows the Babylonian in relating the 7th, 14th, 21st, and 28th of the month to Ahura Mazda.[28]The forerunner of all modern Zoroastrian calendars is the system used to determine dates in the Persian Empire, adopted from the Babylonian calendar by the 4th century BC.
Frank C. Senn in his book Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical points to data suggesting evidence of an early continuous use of a seven-day week; referring to the Jews during the Babylonian captivity in the 6th century BC,[8] after the destruction of the Temple of Solomon.While the seven-day week in Judaism is tied to Creation account in the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible (where God creates the heavens and the earth in six days and rests on the seventh; Genesis 1:1–2:3, in the Book of Exodus, the fourth of the Ten Commandments is to rest on the seventh day, Shabbat, which can be seen as implying a socially instituted seven-day week), it is not clear whether the Genesis narrative predates the Babylonian captivity of the Jews in the 6th century BC. At least since the Second Temple period under Persian rule, Judaism relied on the seven-day cycle of recurring Sabbaths.[29]
Tablets[citation needed] from the Achaemenid period indicate that the lunation of 29 or 30 days basically contained three seven-day weeks, and a final week of eight or nine days inclusive, breaking the continuous seven-day cycle.[26]The Babylonians additionally celebrated the 19th as a special 'evil day', the 'day of anger', because it was roughly the 49th day of the (preceding) month, completing a 'week of weeks', also with sacrifices and prohibitions.[26]
Difficulties with Friedrich Delitzsch's origin theory connecting Hebrew Shabbat with the Babylonian lunar cycle[30] include reconciling the differences between an unbroken week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as Shabbat in any language.[31]
Hellenistic and Roman era[edit]
In Jewish sources by the time of the Septuagint, the term 'Sabbath' (GreekSabbaton) by synecdoche also came to refer to an entire seven-day week,[32] the interval between two weekly Sabbaths.Jesus's parable of the Pharisee and the Publican (Luke 18:12) describes the Pharisee as fasting 'twice in the week' (Greek δὶς τοῦ σαββάτου dis tou sabbatou).
The ancient Romans traditionally used the eight-day nundinum but, after the Julian calendar had come into effect in 45 BC, the seven-day week came into increasing use. For a while, the week and the nundinal cycle coexisted, but by the time the week was officially adopted by Constantine in AD 321, the nundinal cycle had fallen out of use. The association of the days of the week with the Sun, the Moon and the five planets visible to the naked eye dates to the Roman era (2nd century).[33][34]
The continuous seven-day cycle of the days of the week can be traced back to the reign of Augustus; the first identifiable date cited complete with day of the week is 6 February AD 60, identified as a 'Sunday' (as viii idus Februarius dies solis 'eighth day before the ides of February, day of the Sun') in a Pompeiian graffito. According to the (contemporary) Julian calendar, 6 February 60 was, however, a Wednesday. This is explained by the existence of two conventions of naming days of the weeks based on the planetary hours system: 6 February was a 'Sunday' based on the sunset naming convention, and a 'Wednesday' based on the sunrise naming convention.[35]
Adoption in Asia[edit]
China and Japan[edit]
The earliest known reference in Chinese writings to a seven-day week is attributed to Fan Ning, who lived in the late 4th century in the Jin Dynasty, while diffusions from the Manichaeans are documented with the writings of the Chinese Buddhist monk Yi Jing and the Ceylonese or Central Asian Buddhist monk Bu Kong of the 7th century (Tang Dynasty).
The Chinese variant of the planetary system was brought to Japan by the Japanese monk Kūkai (9th century). Surviving diaries of the Japanese statesman Fujiwara Michinaga show the seven-day system in use in Heian Period Japan as early as 1007. In Japan, the seven-day system was kept in use for astrological purposes until its promotion to a full-fledged Western-style calendrical basis during the Meiji Period.
India[edit]
The seven-day week was known in India by the 6th century, referenced in the Pañcasiddhāntikā.[citation needed] Shashi (2000) mentions the Garga Samhita, which he places in the 1st century BC or AD, as a possible earlier reference to a seven-day week in India. He concludes 'the above references furnish a terminus ad quem (viz. 1st century) The terminus a quo cannot be stated with certainty'.[36][37]
Arabia[edit]
In Arabia, a similar seven-week system was adopted, that may be influenced by the Hebrew week (via Christianity).[citation needed]
Christian Europe[edit]
The seven-day weekly cycle has remained unbroken in Christendom, and hence in Western history, for almost two millennia, despite changes to the Coptic, Julian, and Gregorian calendars, demonstrated by the date of Easter Sunday having been traced back through numerous computistic tables to an Ethiopic copy of an early Alexandrian table beginning with the Easter of AD 311.[38][39]
A tradition of divinations arranged for the days of the week on which certain feast days occur develops in the Early Medieval period. There are many later variants of this, including the German Bauern-Praktik and the versions of Erra Pater published in 16th to 17th century England, mocked in Samuel Butler's Hudibras. South and East Slavic versions are known as koliadniki (from koliada, a loan of Latin calendae), with Bulgarian copies dating from the 13th century, and Serbian versions from the 14th century.[40]
Medieval Christian traditions associated with the lucky or unlucky nature of certain days of the week survived into the modern period. This concerns primarily Friday, associated with the crucifixion of Jesus. Sunday, sometimes personified as Saint Anastasia, was itself an object of worship in Russia, a practice denounced in a sermon extant in copies going back to the 14th century.[41]
Sunday, in the ecclesiastical numbering system also counted as the feria prima or the first day of the week; yet, at the same time, figures as the 'eighth day', and has occasionally been so called in Christian liturgy.[d]
Justin Martyr wrote: 'the first day after the Sabbath, remaining the first of all the days, is called, however, the eighth, according to the number of all the days of the cycle, and [yet] remains the first.'[42]
A period of eight days, starting and ending on a Sunday, is called an octave, particularly in Roman Catholic liturgy. In German, the phrase in acht Tagen (literally 'in eight days') means one week from today. In Italian, the phrase oggi otto (literally 'today eight') also means one week from today.
Week numbering[edit]
Weeks in a Gregorian calendar year can be numbered for each year. This style of numbering is commonly used (for example, by schools and businesses) in some European and Asian countries, but rare elsewhere.
ISO 8601 includes the ISO week date system, a numbering system for weeks – each week begins on a Monday and is associated with the year that contains that week's Thursday (so that if a year starts in a long weekend Friday–Sunday, week number one of the year will start after that). For example, week 1 of 2004 (2004W01) ran from Monday, 29 December 2003 to Sunday, 4 January 2004, because its Thursday was 1 January 2004, whereas week 1 of 2005 (2005W01) ran from Monday, 3 January 2005 to Sunday, 9 January 2005, because its Thursday was 6 January 2005 and so the first Thursday of 2005. The highest week number in a year is either 52 or 53 (it was 53 in the year 2004). Schematically, this ISO convention translates as follows:
Weekdays and dates at the start of January | Effect | Weekdays and dates at the end of December (in common years1) | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mon | Tue | Wed | Thu | Fri | Sat | Sun | Week no. 01 begins | First week no. in the year | … | Last week no. in the year | Mon | Tue | Wed | Thu | Fri | Sat | Sun |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 1 January | 01 | 01 next year | 31 | |||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 31 December previous year | 01 | 01 next year | 30 | 31 | |||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 30 December previous year | 01 | 01 next year, 53 when leap year1 | 29 | 30 | 31 | |||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 29 December previous year | 01 | 53 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | |||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 January | 53 previous year | 52 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | |||||||
1 | 2 | 3 January | 53 when leap year previous year, 52 when normal year previous year | 52 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | |||||||
1 | 2 January | 52 previous year | 52 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 |
1 Use the dates on the next line when leap years.
In some countries, though, the numbering system is different from the ISO standard. At least six numberings are in use:[43][44][dubious]
You still have a few more steps to go before that binder is ready. Troop all i do is think of you download free. It should explain how you have been a leader both within but also outside of the Troop. It should talk about your plans for the future and how you see yourself continuing to be an Eagle once you are no longer a Boy Scout. • Write a Statement of Ambition and Life Purpose.
System | First day of week | First week of year contains | Can be last week of previous year | Used by or in | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ISO-8601 | Monday | 4 January | 1st Thursday | 4–7 days of year | yes | EU and most of other European countries, most of Asia and Oceania |
(Middle Eastern) | Saturday | 1 January | 1st Friday | 1–7 days of year | yes | Much of the Middle East |
(North American and Islamic) | Sunday | 1 January | 1st Saturday | 1–7 days of year | yes | Canada, United States, India, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, Hong Kong, Macau, Israel, Egypt, South Africa, the Philippines, and most of Latin America |
The semiconductor package date code is often a 4 digit date code YYWW where the first two digits YY are the last 2 digits of the calendar year and the last two digits WW are the two-digit week number.[45][46]
The tire date code mandated by the US DOT is a 4 digit date code WWYY with two digits of the week number WW followed by the last two digits of the calendar year YY.[47]
'Weeks' in other calendars[edit]
The term 'week' is sometimes expanded to refer to other time units comprising a few days. Such 'weeks' of between four and ten days have been used historically in various places.[48] Intervals longer than 10 days are not usually termed 'weeks' as they are closer in length to the fortnight or the month than to the seven-day week.
Pre-modern calendars[edit]
Calendars unrelated to the Chaldean, Hellenistic, Christian, or Jewish traditions often have time cycles between the day and the month of varying lengths, sometimes also called 'weeks'.
An eight-day week was used in Ancient Rome and possibly in the pre-Christian Celtic calendar. Traces of a nine-day week are found in Baltic languages and in Welsh. The ancient Chinese calendar had a ten-day week, as did the ancient Egyptian calendar (and, incidentally, the French Republican Calendar, dividing its 30-day months into thirds).
A six-day week is found in the Akan Calendar. Several cultures used a five-day week, including the 10th century Icelandic calendar, the Javanese calendar, and the traditional cycle of market days in Korea.[citation needed] The Igbo have a 'market week' of four days. Evidence of a 'three-day week' has been derived from the names of the days of the week in Guipuscoan Basque.[49]
The Aztecs and Mayas used the Mesoamerican calendars. The most important of these calendars divided a ritual cycle of 260 days (known as Tonalpohualli in Nahuatl and Tzolk'in in Yucatec Maya) into 20 weeks of 13 days (known in Spanish as trecenas). They also divided the solar year into 18 periods of 20 days and five nameless days, creating a 20-day month divided into four five-day weeks. The end of each five-day week was a market day.[50][51]
The Balinese Pawukon is a 210-day calendar consisting of 10 different simultaneously running weeks of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 days, of which the weeks of 4, 8, and 9 days are interrupted to fit into the 210-day cycle.
Modern calendar reforms[edit]
A 10-day week, called décade, was used in France for nine and a half years from October 1793 to April 1802; furthermore, the Paris Commune adopted the Revolutionary Calendar for 18 days in 1871.
The Bahá'í calendar features a 19-day period which some classify as a month and others classify as a week.[52]
The International Fixed Calendar (also known as the 'Eastman plan') fixed every date always on the same weekday. This plan kept a 7-day week while defining a year of 13 months with 28 days each. It was the official calendar of the Eastman Kodak Company for decades.
Soviet calendar, 1930.
Five colors of five-day work week repeat.
Five colors of five-day work week repeat.
Soviet calendar, 1933.
Rest day of six-day work week in blue.
Rest day of six-day work week in blue.
Days of each Gregorian month in both calendars are grouped vertically into seven-day weeks.
In the Soviet Union between 1929 and 1940, most factory and enterprise workers, but not collective farm workers, used five- and six-day work weeks while the entire country continued to use the traditional seven-day week.[53][54][55] From 1929 to 1951, five national holidays were days of rest (22 January, 1–2 May, 7–8 November). From autumn 1929 to summer 1931, the remaining 360 days of the year were subdivided into 72 five-day work weeks beginning on 1 January. Workers were assigned any one of the five days as their day off, even if their spouse or friends might be assigned a different day off. Peak usage of the five-day work week occurred on 1 October 1930 at 72% of industrial workers. From summer 1931 until 26 June 1940, each Gregorian month was subdivided into five six-day work weeks, more-or-less, beginning with the first day of each month. The sixth day of each six-day work week was a uniform day of rest. On 1 July 1935 74.2% of industrial workers were on non-continuous schedules, mostly six-day work weeks, while 25.8% were still on continuous schedules, mostly five-day work weeks. The Gregorian calendar with its irregular month lengths and the traditional seven-day week were used in the Soviet Union during its entire existence, including 1929–1940; for example, in the masthead of Pravda, the official Communist newspaper, and in both Soviet calendars displayed here. The traditional names of the seven-day week continued to be used, including 'Resurrection' (Воскресенье) for Sunday and 'Sabbath' (Суббота) for Saturday, despite the government's officialatheism.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Week. |
Notes[edit]
NOTE: this wiki entry consistently refers to Monday as the first day of the week. However, from ancient Hebrew to many Indo-european languages, the honor is given to Sunday, just as the Sun was the chief of celestial powers. Similarly, reference is made to Sunday as the 'Christian Sabbath,' which is a misnomer. Sunday was known in ancient Mediterranean as 'Kuriake' or lord's Day, and rarely as a 'sabbath,' to distinguish it from the Jewish Sabbath.
- ^In pre-modern times, days were measured either from sunset to sunset, or from sunrise to sunrise, so that the length of the week (and the day) would be subject to slight variations depending upon the time of year and the observer's geographical latitude.
- ^It was transmitted to China in the 8th century by Manichaeans, via the country of Kang (a Central Asian polity near Samarkand).Tang-era adoption is documented in the writings of the Chinese Buddhist monk Yi Jing and the Ceylonese Buddhist monk Bu Kong.According to the Chinese encyclopaedia Cihai (辞海), there is some evidence that the system had been adopted twice, the first time already in the 4th century (Jin dynasty), based on a reference by a Jin era astrologer, Fan Ning (范寧 / 范宁).The Cihai under the entry for 'seven luminaries calendar' (七曜曆 / 七曜历, qī yào lì) has: 'method of recording days according to the seven luminaries [七曜qī yào]. China normally observes the following order: Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn. Seven days make one week, which is repeated in a cycle. Originated in ancient Babylon (or ancient Egypt according to one theory). Used by the Romans at the time of the 1st century AD, later transmitted to other countries. This method existed in China in the 4th century. It was also transmitted to China by Manichaeans in the 8th century from the country of Kang (康) in Central Asia.'[16]
- ^Copeland (1939) states as the date for Gudea 'as early as 2600 BC';[22] the modern estimate according to the short chronology places Gudea in the 22nd century BC. By contrast, Anthony R. Michaelis claims that 'the first great empire builder, King Sargon I of Akkad ([ruled] 2335 to 2279 BC [viz., middle chronology]), decreed a seven-day week in his empire. He lived for 56 years, established the first Semitic Dynasty, and defeated the Sumerian City States. Thus the Akkadian language spread, it was adopted by the Babylonians, and the seven-day week was similarly inherited from him.'[23] The number seven is significant in Sumerian mythology.[24]
- ^This is just a reflection of the system of ordinal numbers in the Greek and Latin languages, where today is the 'first' day, tomorrow the 'second' day, etc. Compare the nundinal cycle (literally 'nine-days' cycle, describing an eight-day week) of the Roman calendar, or the Resurrection of Jesus (after a period of less than 48 hours) being described (in texts derived from Latin) as happening on the 'third day'.
References[edit]
- ^sennight at worldwidewords.org (retrieved 12 January 2017)
- ^Richards, E. G. (2013). 'Calendars'. In S. E. Urban & P. K. Seidelmann, eds. Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, 3rd ed. (pp. 585–624). Mill Valley, Calif.: University Science Books. 2013, pp. 592, 618.This is equivalent to saying that JD0, i.e. 1 January 4713 BC of the proleptic Julian calendar, was a Monday.
- ^E. G. Richards, Mapping Time, the Calendar and History, Oxford 1999. p. 269.
- ^Max Vasmer, Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, s.v. понедельник; however, the Slavic languages later introduced a secondary numbering system that names Tuesday as the 'second day'.
- ^the latter specifically due to the influence of Martin of Braga, 6th-century archbishop of Braga. Richard A. Fletcher (1999). The Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity. University of California Press. p. 257. ISBN978-0-520-21859-8.McKenna, Stephen (1938). 'Pagan Survivals in Galicia in the Sixth Century'. Paganism and Pagan Survivals in Spain Up to the Fall of the Visigothic Kingdom. Catholic University of America. pp. 93–94. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
- ^'day of preparation', i.e. the day before Sabbath, c.f. Luke 23:54 (καὶ ἡμέρα ἦν Παρασκευῆς, καὶ σάββατον ἐπέφωσκεν.)
- ^Zerubavel (1989), p. 11.
- ^ abSenn, Frank C. (1997). Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical. Fortress Press. ISBN978-0-8006-2726-3.
- ^Leland, S. Copeland (April 1939). 'Sources of the Seven-Day Week'. Popular Astronomy. XLVII (4): 176 ff. Bibcode:1939PA...47.175C.
- ^A month consisted of three seven-day weeks and a fourth week of eight or nine days, thus breaking the seven-day cycle every month. Consequently, there is no evidence that the days of the week were given individual names in Babylonian tradition. Pinches, T.G. (2003). 'Sabbath (Babylonian)'. In Hastings, James (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. 20. Selbie, John A., contrib. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 889–891. ISBN978-0-7661-3698-4. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
- ^Andreasen, Niels-Erik A. (1972). The Old Testament Sabbath: A Tradition-historical Investigation. Society of Biblical Literature.
- ^Shafer, Byron E. (1974). 'Reviewed Work: The Old Testament Sabbath: A Tradition-Historical Investigation by Niels-Erik A. Andreasen'. Journal of Biblical Literature. 93 (2): 300–301. doi:10.2307/3263102. JSTOR3263102.
- ^ abTigay, Jeffery H. (1998). 'Shavua'. Mo'adei Yisra'el: Time and Holy Days in the Biblical and Second Commonwealth Periods (Heb.), ed. Jacob S. Licht: 22–23.
- ^Hallo, William W. (1977). 'New Moons and Sabbaths: A Case-Study in the Contrastive Approach'. Hebrew Union College Annual. 48: 1–18. JSTOR23506909.
- ^Friedman, Allen (September 2008). 'Unnatural Time: Its History and Theological Significance'. The Torah U-Madda Journal. 15: 104–105. JSTOR40914729, Tigay's citation.
- ^'Japanese Days of the Week: the 'Seven Luminaries''. Days of the Week in Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese & Mongolian. cjvlang.
- ^ abKeegan, Peter; Sears, Gareth; Laurence, Ray (12 September 2013). Written Space in the Latin West, 200 BC to AD 300. A&C Black. ISBN9781441123046.
- ^Zerubavel (1989), p. 14.
- ^So, Ky-Chun (6 April 2017). Jesus in Q: The Sabbath and Theology of the Bible and Extracanonical Texts. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN9781498282116.
- ^Brind'Amour, Pierre (1983). Le calendrier Romain :Recherches chronologiques (in French). Editions de l'Universitá d'Ottawa. p. 256–275. ISBN2760347028.
- ^Schaff, Philip (1884). History of the Christian Church Vol. III. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. p. 380. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
- ^Copeland, Leland S. (1939). 'Sources of the Seven-Day Week'. Popular Astronomy. 47 (4): 176. Bibcode:1939PA...47.175C.
- ^Michaelis, Anthony R. 'The Enigmatic Seven'(PDF). Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 7: 373.
- ^'The power of seven'. The Economist. 20 December 2001.
- ^'Each account is arranged in a series of sevens, the Babylonian in seven tablets, the Hebrew in seven days. Each of them places the creation of man in the sixth division of its series.' cited after: Albert T. Clay, The Origin of Biblical Traditions: Hebrew Legends in Babylonia and Israel, 1923, p. 74.
- ^ abcdPinches, T.G. (2003). 'Sabbath (Babylonian)'. In Hastings, James (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. 20. Selbie, John A., contrib. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 889–891. ISBN978-0-7661-3698-4. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
- ^'The Babylonian Sabbath'. The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal. Vol. XXX. 1908. p. 181. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
- ^Boyce, Mary (ed. & trans.). Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. University of Chicago Press, 1984, p. 19-20.
- ^Senn, Frank C. (1997). Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical. Fortress Press. ISBN978-0-8006-2726-3.
- ^Landau, Judah Leo. The Sabbath. Johannesburg, South Africa: Ivri Publishing Society, Ltd. pp. 2, 12. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
- ^Sampey, John Richard (1915). 'Sabbath: Critical Theories'. In Orr, James (ed.). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Howard-Severance Company. p. 2630.
- ^Strong's Concordance, 4521.
- ^Zerubavel (1989), p. 45.
- ^Senn, Frank C. (1997). Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical. Fortress Press. ISBN978-0-8006-2726-3.
- ^Nerone Caesare Augusto Cosso Lentuol Cossil fil. Cos. VIII idus Febr(u)arius dies solis, luna XIIIIX nun(dinae) Cumis, V (idus Februarias) nun(dinae) Pompeis.
Robert Hannah (2013). 'Time in Written Spaces'. In Peter Keegan; Gareth Sears; Ray Laurence (eds.). Written Space in the Latin West, 200 BC to AD 300. A&C Black. p. 89. - ^Shashi, Shyam Singh (2000). Encyclopaedia Indica India, Pakistan, Bangladesh Vol. 76 Major dynasties of ancient Orissa: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. pp. 114–115. ISBN978-81-7041-859-7.
- ^Pandurang Vaman Kane (1930–1962). History of Dharmaśāstra.
- ^Neugebauer, Otto (1979). Ethiopic astronomy and computus. Verl. d. Österr. Akad. d. Wiss. ISBN978-3-7001-0289-2.
- ^Jayne Lutwyche (22 January 2013). 'Why are there seven days in a week?'. Religion & Ethics. BBC.
The Roman context of the spread of Christianity meant that Rome contributed a lot to the structure and calendar of the new faith
- ^William Francis Ryan, The Bathhouse at Midnight: An Historical Survey of Magic and Divination in Russia, Penn State Press, 1999p. 380.
- ^William Francis Ryan, The Bathhouse at Midnight: An Historical Survey of Magic and Divination in Russia, Penn State Press, 1999p. 383.
- ^Peter Kirby. 'Saint Justin Martyr: Dialogue with Trypho'. Early Christian Writings.
- ^Peter Johann Haas (26 January 2002). 'Weeknumber sorted by definition'. pjh2.de.
- ^'Calendar Weeks'. J. R. Stockton. Archived from the original on 13 January 2014.CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
- ^'Quality & Lead-free (Pb-free): Marking Convention'. Texas Instrument. Archived from the original on 5 April 2014.
- ^'Top Mark Convention – 4-Digit Date Code'. Fairchild Semiconductor. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014.
- ^'49 CFR 574.5 – Tire identification requirements'. Legal Information Institute.
- ^OED s.v. 'week n.', entry 1.c.: 'Sometimes applied transf. to other artificial cycles of a few days that have been employed various peoples'
- ^Astronomy and Basque Language, Henrike Knörr, Oxford VI and SEAC 99 'Astronomy and Cultural Diversity', La Laguna, June 1999. It references Alessandro Bausani, 1982, The prehistoric Basque week of three days: archaeoastronomical notes, The Bulletin of the Center for Archaeoastronomy (Maryland), v. 2, 16–22.1. astelehena ('week-first', Monday), 2. asteartea ('week-between', Tuesday), 3. asteazkena ('week-last', Wednesday).
- ^Zerubavel (1989), pp. 50–54.
- ^'Aztec calendar stone'. aztec-history.com.
- ^Zerubavel, Eviatar (1985). The Seven-Day Circle. New York: The Free Press. pp. 48–50. ISBN0029346800.
- ^Foss, Clive (September 2004). 'Stalin's topsy-turvy work week'. History Today. 54 (9): 46–47.
- ^'La réforme en Russie: il faudra attendre… plus de trois siècles' [The reform in Russia: it will be necessary to wait… more than three centuries]. iCalendrier (in French).
- ^Zerubavel, Eviatar (1985). 'The Soviet five-day Nepreryvka'. The Seven Day Circle. New York: Free Press. pp. 35–43. ISBN0029346800.
- Zerubavel, Eviatar (1989). The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week. University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-98165-9.
Further reading[edit]
- Colson, Francis Henry (1926). The Week: An Essay on the Origin and Development of the Seven-day Cycle. Cambridge University Press. OCLC59110177.
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). 'week' . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Week&oldid=901844460'
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Summary | |||||||||||||||
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Airport type | Public | ||||||||||||||
Owner | Airports Authority of India | ||||||||||||||
Serves | Chennai metropolitan area | ||||||||||||||
Location | Meenambakkam and Thirusoolam, Chennai | ||||||||||||||
Opened | 1910 | ||||||||||||||
Hub for | |||||||||||||||
Focus city for | |||||||||||||||
Elevation AMSL | 16 m / 52 ft | ||||||||||||||
Coordinates | 12°58′56″N80°9′49″E / 12.98222°N 80.16361°ECoordinates: 12°58′56″N80°9′49″E / 12.98222°N 80.16361°E | ||||||||||||||
Website | www.aai.aero/en/airports/chennai | ||||||||||||||
Map | |||||||||||||||
Runways | |||||||||||||||
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Statistics (April 2018 - March 2019) | |||||||||||||||
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Chennai International Airport (IATA: MAA, ICAO: VOMM) is an international airport serving the city of Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India and its metropolitan area. It is located in Meenambakkam and Tirusulam, 21 km (13 mi) from the city centre. The airport handled over 22.5 million passengers in the fiscal year 2017-18, with over 570 aircraft movements and 30,000 passengers per day. Chennai international airport is the third busiest in international traffic and cargo capacity in the country behind New Delhi and Mumbai.[4][5] It is the fourth busiest airport in country's overall passenger traffic behind New Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore. It is also 49th busiest airport in asia making it one of the four major airports in India under the top 50 list. [6] The airport is served by the airport metro station of the Chennai Metro and the Tirusulam railway station of the Chennai Suburban Railway system. In order to cope with the passenger traffic two new terminals namely T5 and T6 (one satellite terminal) are under construction to handle 40 million passengers per year[7]. Once completed, it will be india's first airport to have a satellite terminal. The new satellite terminal will be connected through a four way underground walkalator for passenger movement across different terminals[8]. Still the airport will reach saturation by 2022 with a peak capacity of 40 million passengers and a proposal for the new airport in Chennai is underway for decades. Once the new airport is commissioned, both the airports will be functional until all operations are moved to the new airport.[9]
The domestic and the international terminals are named after former chief ministers of Tamil Nadu K. Kamaraj and C. N. Annadurai, respectively. It was the first airport in India to have international and domestic terminals located adjacent to each other. This airport serves as the regional headquarters of the Airports Authority of India for South India comprising the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and Kerala and the union territories of Puducherry and Lakshadweep.
- 1History
- 2Administration
- 3Layout and infrastructure
- 5Airlines and destinations
- 6Passenger Traffic
- 7Fixed-base operators
- 10Future expansion
History[edit]
Giacomo D'Angelis and his biplane in 1910, the first flight ever in Asia
The old terminal (1945) at Meenambakkam
Façade of Chennai airport in 2007
Aviation[edit]
The aviation history of the city began in 1910, when a city-based Corsican hotelier Giacomo D'Angelis built an aircraft and tested it.[10] Inspired by Louis Blériot, a Frenchman who was the first to fly across the English Channel in July 1909,[10][11] D'Angelis collaborated with Simpson's, a leading coach-builder in the city, to build a biplane.[12] The biplane was built entirely from D'Angelis's own designs, fitted with a small horse-power engine. Samuel John Green, a motor engineer at Simpson's, helped with the manufacture and assembly of the biplane.[10] On 10 March 1910, D'Angelis tested the aircraft in the suburb of Pallavaram, making it the first flight ever in Asia.[13] While demonstrating it to the public during the ticketed show, he even took a person from the crowd on the aircraft as his passenger.[12] Immediately, he also arranged a public viewing at the Island Grounds, charging entrance fees for the demonstration.[10]
The interest in flying among prominent residents of the city resulted in the arrival of a set of aviators in 1911 to display the flying machines they had brought with them to India as a marketing initiative.[12] The aviators included Baron de Caters and Jules Tyck.[14] On 15 February 1911, Tyck flew in a Blériot aeroplane in front of the public. The aircraft was wheeled out by eight men with Tyck seated inside the craft wearing an oilskin coat and goggles. The men held the plane till its engine revved up and then let go, and the craft darted forward about 20 yards before rising into the air. In the air, the craft made a straight flight only for about three-quarters of the length of the ground and descended due to poor weather.[12] Tyck flew again the next day, this time reaching a height of 2,400 feet, which was witnessed by the then Governor of Madras Sir Arthur Lawley.[12] Two days later, on 18 February, another demonstration was given by Baron de Caters, when he flew his aircraft in public.[14]
The history of civil aviation in India began in December 1912, with the opening of the first domestic air route between Karachi and Delhi by the Indian state Air services in collaboration with the Imperial Airways, United Kingdom. However, it was just an extension of London–Karachi flight of the Imperial Airways. In 1915, the first Indian airline, Tata Sons Ltd, started a regular airmail service between Karachi and Madras without any patronage from the government, marking the beginning of air transportation in the southern part of India.[15]
A test flight was conducted at the Island Grounds in 1914, when J. W. Madley, a water works engineer, tested an aircraft assembled by him. He flew it over the Red Hills reservoir to inspect works and shot a couple of aerial photographs of the reservoir from the aircraft.[12]
In March 1930, a discussion initiated by pilot G. Vlasto led to the founding of Madras Flying Club, which became a pioneer in South India.[11][12] The club had 71 founding members, of whom 14 were Indians. Flt Lt H N Hawker became the club's first flight instructor.[11] The club's first Indian chief pilot instructor, Mohammed Ismail Khan, trained several pilots, some of whom were trained professionally or others simply for fun.[11] When the state council of Ceylon built an aerodrome at Ratnamala near Colombo in 1935, the first flight to land there was flown by chief flying instructor of the club Tyndale Biscoe. On 26 October 1936, Captain V. Sundaram, who got the first commercial pilot licence, flew a De Havilland Dove aircraft from Karachi to Madras.[12]
On 15 October 1932, when J. R. D. Tata, founder of Tata Sons Ltd, flew a single-engined de Havilland carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi's Drigh Road Aerodrome to Bombay's Juhu Airstrip via Ahmedabad, the flight was continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by aviator Nevill Vintcent.[16]
Airport[edit]
Chennai was one of the first airports in India.[17] The airport was built on land donated by the former governor of Madras Presidency, K Sriramulu Naidu.[17] Although the first aircraft 'de Havilland' landed in Chennai Airport in 1932, the usage was confined only to military operations during World War II.[18] In 1952, the Civil Aviation Department took over its operations followed by the AAI in 1972.
Chennai airport in 2017
An air cargo complex was commissioned on 1 February 1978 for processing of import, export, and transshipment cargo, in addition to unaccompanied luggage,[19] which is the second gateway air cargo terminal in the country after the one at Kolkata airport.[20] The first terminal was built at the north-east side of the airport in the suburb of Meenambakkam, thus being referred to as Meenambakkam Airport. Another terminal was built at Tirusulam where passenger operations were shifted. The new domestic terminal (named Kamaraj Terminal 1) was commissioned in 1985 and the international terminal (named Anna Terminal 3) was commissioned in 1989. The old terminal building became the Terminal 2 and is now used as a cargo terminal for Blue Dart Aviation.[18] On 23 September 1999, a centre for flowers, fruits and vegetables was commissioned at the cargo terminal.[19] The new international departure terminal was commissioned in 2003.[18]
Ramp view of the airport
In 2001, Chennai Airport received ISO 9001-2000 certification, the first such international airport in India. During the early days, Madras Airport was one of the largest airports in India handling many international flight connections[21][22][23] In 2008, the AAI started major modernisation of the airport.[24]
Administration[edit]
Inside of chennai international airport
Chennai airport is the regional headquarters of the Airports Authority of India (AAI) for the southern region of India comprising the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and Kerala and the union territories of Puducherry and Lakshadweep. It functions from the ATS Complex within the airport and has 49 airports under its control, including 19 operational AAI airports, 5 operational private/joint venture airports, 5 non-operational airports, 12 military airports, and 8 disused airfields. These include 6 international airports, 15 domestic airports, and 3 customs airports.[25]
Chennai airport is the centre of the southern flight information region (FIR), one of the four FIRs that the Indian air space is divided into. The regional executive director (RED) is responsible for the air traffic services over the Chennai FIR and airport management on ground at the airports in South India. The Chennai FIR includes terrestrial air space above the five southern states and two southern union territories and the oceanic air space of the southern part of the Bay of Bengal and the eastern part of the Arabian Sea. Coordination with the neighbouring national FIRs of Kolkata and Mumbai and with the neighbouring international FIRs of Sri Lanka, Kuala Lampur, and Yangon for air traffic control purposes are being made with telecommunication links (both voice and data). The immigration services at the airport are handled by the Bureau of Immigration.[26]
Privatisation[edit]
The Government of India has proposed to offer a contract to a private operator to maintain and operate the daily operations of the airport. AAI recently invited bids for the same and various firms including Tata, Fraport, Celebi, Sahara, GMR, GVK and Essar have shown interest.[27][28] The airport employees are protesting against the move fearing job losses.[29]
Layout and infrastructure[edit]
Spread over an area 1323 acres,[30] Chennai International Airport consists of three terminals: the old terminal at Meenambakkam (Terminal 2) used for cargo and the two terminals at the new passenger terminal complex at Tirusulam (Terminals 1 and 3) used for domestic and international passenger operations, respectively.
Passenger Terminals[edit]
Today, the passenger terminal complex consists of the domestic and international terminals interconnected by a link building, which houses administrative offices and a restaurant.[17] Although the complex is one continuous structure, it was built incrementally, Anna terminal (Terminal 3) was added in 1988 to the pre-existing Kamaraj terminal (Terminal 1).
- Terminal 1 & 2
The first part to be built was the domestic terminal (Terminal 1) which had two aero-bridges followed by the international terminal with three aero-bridges. After the completion of the international terminal, the old terminal at Meenambakkam (Terminal 2) was used exclusively for cargo.
- Terminal 3 & 4
Recently the international terminal was extended further south by adding a new block which includes three aero-bridges. At present, the new international block (Terminal 4) is used for departures while the older building (Terminal 3) is used for arrivals.
The international and the domestic terminals cover an area of 1.5 km2 and 1.8 km2, respectively. The airport is divided into two circles, with five zones each, for administrative conveniences.[31] Around 550 acres of the airport premises fall within the St Thomas Mount and Pallavaram Cantonment Board's limits. The rest of the area comes under the Meenambakkam town panchayat's jurisdiction.[32] The Kamaraj domestic terminal covers an area of 19,250 m2 (207,200 sq ft) with 48 check-in counters. The Anna international terminal covers an area of 42,870 m2 (461,400 sq ft) with 45 check-in counters, 38 immigration counters including 16 at the departure terminal and 22 at the arrival terminal and 18 customs counter including 2 at the departure terminal and 16 at the arrival terminal.[33] There are four entry gates at the airport, two each at both the terminals. There are 5 X-ray baggage facilities at the domestic terminal and 2 at the international terminal.[34] The total area of retail space at the existing domestic and international terminals is 3,250 sq m, comprising 60 concessions including duty-free retail shops, restaurants, snack bars and executive lounges.[35] The Anna international terminal has 6 boarding gates on the first floor. The Kamaraj domestic terminal has a total of 9 boarding gates, including 6 on the ground floor and 3 on the first floor.[33] The airport has 24 taxiways, including the 411-metre-long taxiway M on the southern side commissioned in March 2017, capable of handling 36 aircraft movements per hour.[36] In January 2018, the airport began cross-runway operations to avoid flight delays, increasing aircraft movements from 36 to 42 an hour.[37]
The airport currently has 70 parking bays, one of which can accommodate the super-jumbo Airbus A380.[30] Parking bays at the domestic terminal include one in-contact bay for Airbus A300-sized aircraft, nine in-contact bays for Airbus A320/Boeing 737-sized aircraft, and 49 remote bays for A320/737-sized aircraft. Parking bays at the international terminal include seven in-contact bays for Boeing 747-sized aircraft, 13 remote bays for 747-sized aircraft, one remote bay for an A380 aircraft, and three cargo bays for 747-sized aircraft.[33] Works on the 24 new night parking bays had been completed in the apron area. With the new parking bays, the Chennai airport has 81 parking bays.[38] Chennai airport is the first airport in India to have aero-bridges at the domestic terminal.[21]
Modernisation and expansion of terminals[edit]
The airport was modernised and expanded in 2012, with the construction of a new domestic terminal (Terminal 1), the expansion and renovation of the existing international terminal (Terminal 4), the renovation of the existing domestic terminal, the extension of the secondary runway and the creation of a parallel runway, taxiways, aprons, parking bays and cargo terminal. The new terminal spread across 72,000 m2 (780,000 sq ft) has 72 passenger check-in counters. However, the plan for the parallel runway has been dropped.[39]
The original plan to build a three-basement-level car parking for about 1,500 vehicles with about 8,000 sq m of commercial area on the open ground opposite the new domestic terminal building has been deferred temporarily. Instead, a surface-level parking to accommodate 400 vehicles has been planned at a cost of ₹ 4.42 crore.[40]
New passenger terminals[edit]
Check-in area
The current development projects include construction of a new domestic terminal and expansion of the current international terminal. The design is a collaborative effort of team lead involving Frederic Schwartz Architects, Gensler, and led by New Delhi-based Creative Group. Creative Group is the principal architect for the project providing comprehensive architecture and engineering consultancy for the design of the passengers terminal buildings, parking garage structures and roadway access system. The proposed design, based on Gensler's Terminal 2015 concept, will be connected with the existing terminal design elements. It was earlier reported that the new terminal buildings will have a handling capacity of 1 crore passengers and when integrated with existing terminals will provide for a handling capacity of 2.3 crore passengers a year. The new terminal buildings are expected to have an area of about 1,40,000 m² with 104 check-in counters, 16 aero-bridge and 60 immigration counters and the two runways would be interconnected by a network of taxiways. The terminal complex will have a flyover travellator connecting the domestic and international terminals for a distance of about 1 km. It will have an elevated road on the top and a tube below which will have two walkalators.[41] The 600-m long walkalator belt will be installed at a cost of ₹ 26 crore.[42] The ₹24,760-million expansion programme commenced on 11 July 2018 and will be completed by mid-2021.[citation needed]
- Design
The design details of the runways are handled by the Airports Authority of India, while architecture firms are limited to designing buildings on the land side of the runway. Magix music maker free download. The present proposal is parallel to the existing runway. The entire design as being organised around 'two lush sustainable gardens' and the wing-like roofs helps collect rainwater and become part of the garden.[43]
The domestic terminal building currently measures 139,931 sq ft (13,000.0 m2) and handles 47.4 lakh passengers a year. The revamped design of the domestic terminal building will accommodate twice as many passengers in a three-storey structure 984 ft long. The new design, based on the organisation of security and passenger circulation, centres around two lush, ecologically sustainable gardens each measuring nearly an acre and includes a parking garage with a green roof over 300 m long and rainwater capture systems collectively known as the 'green gate' of the terminal. Expansive glass curtain walls will be incorporated to boost the feeling of airiness and spaciousness, as will skylights.[44] The new terminal will have three levels. The departure area will be featured on the top level with the arrivals section on ground level. The arrivals section will form the base for airlines and other offices with the basement reserved for luggage scanners. The domestic terminal covers 67,700 sq m and will also have a provision of seven gates, two hard-stand hold rooms and 52 check-in counters, besides eight counters for e-ticketing. The international terminal will cover 59,300 sq m with the provision of two gates with multiple hard-stand hold rooms, 52 check-in counters, eight counters for e-ticketing, 18/10 immigration/Custom counters for handling passenger arrival and 18/4 immigration/Custom counters for outgoing passengers. Both the terminals will be equipped with an in-line baggage handling system capable of Level 4 security screening system. This system consists of four departure conveyors of a total length of 3,500 m and can handle 1,200 baggages per hour.[45]
The new terminal buildings measure more than 140,000 m2 (1,500,000 sq ft). The new terminals buildings are expected to cater to 1.4 crore more passengers per annum, including 40 lakh per annum at the international terminals. With the existing terminals handling 90 lakh, the airport will be able to handle 2.3 crore passengers per annum after the integration[46] with 1.6 crore in domestic and 70 lakh in the international terminal.[45] After expansion, the aircraft movements in the airport is likely to increase at the rate of 5 to 7%. By 2020–21, the airport is expected to handle 700 movements a day.[35] The new terminals are expected to clock between 72 and 75 green points of the total 100 for integrated inhabited assessment. The AAI has divided the building for land-side and air-side operations. The spaces are connected with a central security checkpoint for departure and there is a glass bridge on each side of the building for arriving passengers. On the roadside, the new terminals are connected with an elevated corridor, which will have approach and exit ramps.[46] The power requirement at the expanded airport is around 110 kV•A – more than three times the current needs.[47] A new 11,000 kV sub-station has been built by the Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Corporation (TANGEDCO) at the airport to serve the terminals, for which the power has been sourced from Kadapperi near Tambaram.[48] The retail space earmarked in the new international and domestic terminals is about 9,000 sq m, nearly thrice as much as the existing one.[35]
- Accidents and Controversies
In recent years, there were many reported incidents of ceiling collapses and glass door and window breakages due to the poor quality and improper design of work during the recent modernisation of the airport terminals. The first incident happened on 13 May 2013 when 20 panels caved in near the security hold area due to heavy winds, followed by another incident on 11 August when 23 panels behind the check-in counters at the terminal crashed due to heavy condensation. The last reported incident of a Ceiling collapse happened in end April 2015, bringing the total number of incidents to an abnormal 45. As on 11 August 2015, the number of incidents have reached 50 which has been a point of discussion in social networking sites.[49]
Cargo complex[edit]
The Air Cargo Complex at the Chennai airport was established in 1978, when all regulatory and facilitating agencies were brought under one roof for faster processing/clearance of international cargo, to cater for air cargo movement in the southern region. At the cargo terminal, AAI functions as ground handling agency for airlines for handling or processing their cargo on ground and acts as custodian on behalf of customs import/export cargo under the customs act of 1962. Spread over an area of 19.5 acres, the complex uses cargo-handling equipments such as elevated transfer vehicle, forklifts, high-mast stackers, and power hydraulic pallet trucks for handling cargo.[19] The covered area of the export wing of the complex is 20,595 sq m while that of the import wing is 20,090 sq m.[50] The existing covered area of cargo terminal in occupation of AAI is 37,085 sq m.[19] There are three ETV build-up/working stations and 18 manual build-up ETV loading positions at the complex.[50]
The cargo complex consists of two divisions, namely, the export and the import facilities. The export facility covers an area of 16,366 sq m and the import facility covers 16,500 sq m.[51] The complex has an exclusive cargo apron which can accommodate three wide-bodied aircraft with ULD parking area and hydrant-refuelling facility at the bay.[50] The Customs department has appointed AAI and AI as the custodian at the complex. The import cargo of all the airlines is solely handled by AAI. The export cargo, on the other hand, is handled by AAI in respect of airlines handled by it while those of the rest of the airlines are handled by AI.[19]
Export area | |
Ground floor area | 5,200 sq m |
First floor area (office) | 2,295 sq m |
Truck dock position/area | 14 trucks (865 sq m) |
Examination area | 770 sq m |
Bonded area | 2,270 sq m |
Import area | |
Total area | 20,090 sq m |
The available capacity and cargo handled at the terminal are listed below:
Area | Annual capacity (Tonnes) | Annual tonnage (Tonnes) |
---|---|---|
Export General | 265,000 | 160,000 |
Import | 277,460 | 130,000 |
Total | 542,460 | 290,000 |
The existing capacity of the air cargo complex is expected to meet the requirement till 2020. Phase III and IV of the new integrated cargo terminal with latest automated storage and retrieval system is under construction, enhancing the area from 35,920 sq m to 54,620 sq m.
The upcoming import cargo storage and processing facility would have a capacity to handle almost 8 lakh tonnes of cargo annually from the existing 3 lakh tonnes. The new complex will have an area of 58,000 sq m against the current area of 26,000 sq m. The conventional way of warehouse management will be replaced by automated storage and retrieval system (ASRS) The ASRS would have over 8,000 storage bins and each bin would have a capacity to store 1.3 to 1.5 tonnes of cargo in it. Apart from ASRS, the upcoming facilities would also have multiple temperature-controlled cold storages for perishable cargo,[52] with three chambers at 0 to 12 °C covering a total area of 445 sq m.[53] There would be three fully secured strong rooms for storage and processing of high value cargo, such as gems, jewellery, gold and silver, both in export and import together. The new facility would also have dedicated isolated storage locations for handling dangerous and hazardous cargo.[52]
In 2009, an integrated cargo complex was planned in the cargo complex of the airport. The complex would be constructed, at a cost of ₹ 145 crore, in 15 months. While the ground floor would measure 21,000 sq m, the first floor would be built on 12,100 sq m. The new building would be used exclusively for import activities. Once the civil works were completed, the ASRS would be installed. It would cost ₹ 75 crore.[54]
Air traffic control tower[edit]
Chennai is the home to India's biggest air traffic control (ATC) centre.[55] The ATC tower is located at the Air Traffic Services Complex. There are two radars in Chennai—the mono-pulse secondary surveillance radar at Porur and the Chennai Westing House (terminal) radar.[56] Advance surface movement guidance and control system has been introduced in the ATC tower.[57]
As a first step towards integrating the entire airspace in the country, the automation system at the ATC in Chennai Airport was commissioned on 1 October 2011. The Airports Authority of India (AAI) has invested ₹ 42 crore for the Chennai automation system, which runs on Auto Track 3+, a sophisticated air traffic control automation system supplied and installed by US-based Raytheon.[56][58] A new route radar at Porur has also been installed and the 13-year-old terminal radar at the airport will be replaced. With the automation system in place, all information regarding tower control, approach control, area control and oceanic control would be exchanged electronically in Chennai. It would ensure reliability, thereby enhancing safety of aircraft and passengers.[59][60][61]
Chennai is among the four flight information centres in the country besides Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata, and the Chennai ATC has Hyderabad, Mangaluru, Thiruvananthapuram and Bangalore under its control. Besides the two radars in Chennai, radar systems in Mangaluru, Bangalore, Bangalore HAL, Shamshabad (Hyderabad), Bellary and Thiruvananthapuram are included in the new system.[62] With the advanced integrated radar technology, ATC in Chennai now has the entire South Indian region on its radar screens, mainly coordinating flight movements above 26,000 to 46,000 ft.[56]
Following the Performance-Based Navigation system (PBN) and the air traffic control automation, in 2011, the AAI initiated a pilot project on a Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS), as part of implementing Gagan (Geo Augmented Navigation) in the country. There will be a set of 3–4 GPS satellites, one geo-synchronous satellite, GPS receivers at end of the runways, a ground station and a VHF data broadcast system. When the pilot project starts, Chennai airport will be the first airport in the country to have the facility.[63]
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Runways[edit]
Runway 07/25 as seen from St Thomas Mount
Chennai airport has two runways—the 3,658 m (12,001 ft) long primary runway No 07/25 (North-east - South-west orientation) and the 2,925 m (9,596 ft) long secondary runway No 12/30 (North-west - South-east orientation). Approach lights include CAT-1 category at runway 07 and CAT-1 type at runway 25 for 510 m. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)-type landing aids are available in all the runways.[33] Routine maintenance work of the primary runway is carried out twice a week—between 2.30 pm and 4.30 pm on Tuesdays and Saturdays.[64]
Chennai airport does not have rapid exit taxiways that help pilots to vacate a runway without slowing down the aircraft soon after landing. Planes such as the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8 will have to slow down completely to negotiate sharp turns on the taxiway. In 2011, AAI began work on upgrading the existing taxiways and parking bays at the airport to handle these jumbo planes.[65]
The secondary runway, which was initially 2,035 m long, was closed in 2009 to extend it over the Adyar river by means of a bridge over the watercourse at a cost of ₹ 430 crore. Initially, 126.59 acres of land for second runway was handed over to Airports Authority of India (AAI). In March 2011, by acquiring 136 acres of land from the state government, AAI completed extension of the 2,035 m secondary runway by 1,400 m,[66] whose commissioning, initially planned to be by November 2011, has been delayed as the approach lighting system has not been installed.[67] While the cost of extending the runway was projected to be about ₹ 240 crore, that of the bridge is almost ₹ 230 crore.[30] A bridge has been constructed across the Adyar river to extend the secondary runway by a length of 1,400 m to a total length of 3,445 m, including 835 m on the northern side of the river.[68] The bridge accommodates the runway and a taxiway, making Chennai Airport the only international airport in India to have a runway across a river.[69][70] In Mumbai, only an end of the runway is over Mithi river. When the Airports Authority of India (AAI) recommissions the secondary runway, Chennai airport will join the league of airports with a functional runway across a river.[64]
With a new airport under consideration, the project for a parallel runway has been put on hold and the total land required for the airport expansion reduced from 1,069.99 acres to 800 acres.[71] AAI planned to operate 2,400 m even after removing obstructions. About 2,085 m of the runway was earlier used for landing only smaller aircraft, like ATR types.[72] In February 2012, airport authorities announced that only about 2,160 m of the secondary runway would be operational as there will be 330 m permanent displacement at GST road side and 780 m displacement at the other end. This restricted length would be enough to operate Airbus A320 and Boeing 737 aircraft without load penalty.[73] Bad planning by the airport authorities, which has resulted in the removal of the very-high-frequency omni range equipment (VOR) from its original location where a link way has been constructed between the main and the secondary runways, has been considered the reason behind the delay.[74]
The present runway occupancy time at the airport (the time an aircraft spends on the runway) is around 70 seconds. By October 2018, the runway occupancy time will be reduced to 60 seconds, with the completion of the ongoing runway development works.[75]
In 2018, the airport acquired 151 acres for expansion works from neighbouring areas including Kolappakkam, Manappakkam, St. Thomas Mount and Gowl Bazaar. Expansion works includes installation of simple approach lighting systems for secondary runway, construction of hangars and parallel taxi track for the airport, fuel farm, installation of CAT 1 approach lighting system for the main runway, and a wide-apreture localiser antenna.[76]
Passenger vehicle parking[edit]
As of 2018, the existing parking lot at the airport can accommodate 1,200 cars.[77] In June 2018, an ₹ 2,500-million multi-level car park with a capacity to accommodate 2,237 cars was planned at both ends of the Airport Metro Rail station in front of the airport on a 4.25-acre plot.[78][77][79] It will have a built-up area of one million square feet and will be 27 metres tall with six levels. In addition, a 250,000-square-feet mall will be built by the Olympia Group and Larsen & Toubro in 18 months.[77] The mall will have a 238,100-square-feet cinema multiplex and a 35,678-square-feet 59-key transit hotel facility.[80] The parking facility will be connected to the travelator linking the international and domestic terminals. Construction began in March 2019 and will be completed by the end of 2020.[78]
Airlines and destinations[edit]
Domestic flights operate from the Kamaraj Terminal, while the Anna Terminal is used for international flights. The old terminal at Meenambakkam is used for cargo operations. The airport serves as the regional headquarters of the Airports Authority of India for the southern region of India comprising the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and Kerala and the union territories of Puducherry and Lakshadweep.[81]
Passenger[edit]
Airlines | Destinations | Refs. |
---|---|---|
Air Arabia | Sharjah | |
Air Austral | Saint-Denis de la Réunion | |
Air India | Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Colombo, Delhi, Denpasar/Bali (begins 27 October 2019),[82]Dubai–International, Goa, Hyderabad, Kochi, Kolkata, Kuwait, Madurai, Mumbai, Muscat, Port Blair, Sharjah, Singapore, Thiruvananthapuram, Varanasi | |
Air India Express | Singapore, Thiruvananthapuram | |
Air Mauritius | Mauritius | |
AirAsia | Kuala Lumpur-International | |
AirAsia India | Bangalore, Hyderabad, Kolkata | [83] |
All Nippon Airways | Tokyo-Narita (begins 27 October 2019)[84] | |
Alliance Air | Coimbatore, Goa, Hyderabad, Madurai, Pune, Tiruchirappalli, Vijayawada Seasonal charter:Vellore, Agatti Island | |
Batik Air | Denpasar/Bali, Kuala Lumpur–International, Medan | [85] |
British Airways | London–Heathrow | |
Cathay Pacific | Hong Kong | |
Emirates | Dubai–International | |
Etihad Airways | Abu Dhabi | |
flydubai | Dubai–International | |
GoAir | Ahmedabad, Kannur, Mumbai, Port Blair, Pune | [86][87] |
Gulf Air | Bahrain | |
IndiGo | Ahmedabad, Bagdogra, Bangalore, Bangkok–Suvarnabhumi, Bhubaneswar, Coimbatore, Colombo, Delhi, Doha, Dubai–International, Goa, Guwahati, Hubli, Hyderabad, Indore, Jaipur, Kannur, Kochi, Kolkata, Kozhikode, Kuala Lumpur-International (begins 15 July 2019), Kuwait, Lucknow, Madurai, Mangaluru, Mumbai, Nagpur, Port Blair, Pune, Raipur, Rajahmundry, Singapore, Surat, Thiruvananthapuram, Tiruchirappalli, Tuticorin, Udaipur, Vijayawada, Visakhapatnam | [88][89] |
Kuwait Airways | Kuwait | |
Lufthansa | Frankfurt | |
Malaysia Airlines | Kuala Lumpur–International | |
Maldivian | Dhaka, Malé | [90] |
Oman Air | Muscat | |
Qatar Airways | Doha | |
Saudia | Jeddah, Riyadh Hajj: Medina | |
Scoot | Singapore | |
SilkAir | Singapore | |
Singapore Airlines | Singapore | |
SpiceJet | Ahmedabad, Bagdogra, Bangalore, Bhopal, Coimbatore, Colombo, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kochi, Kolkata, Kozhikode, Madurai, Mumbai, Patna, Port Blair, Pune, Shirdi, Tuticorin, Vijayawada, Varanasi[91] | |
SriLankan Airlines | Colombo | |
Thai AirAsia | Bangkok–Don Mueang | |
Thai Airways | Bangkok–Suvarnabhumi | |
TruJet | Kadapa, Hyderabad, Mysore, Salem | |
US-Bangla Airlines | Dhaka, Chittagong[92] | |
Vistara | Delhi, Kolkata (begins 1 Aug 2019), Port Blair, Mumbai |
Cargo[edit]
Airlines | Destinations |
---|---|
Aerologic | Frankfurt, Ho Chi Minh City |
AirBridgeCargo Airlines | Hong Kong, Singapore |
Blue Dart Aviation | Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Delhi, Hyderabad, Kochi, Kolkata, Mumbai |
Cargolux | Luxembourg, Muscat |
Cathay Pacific Cargo | Amsterdam, Colombo, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Delhi, Bangalore, Manchester, Milan–Malpensa, Mumbai |
Emirates SkyCargo | Dubai-Al Maktoum |
Ethiopian Airlines | Addis Ababa, Hong Kong |
Korean Air | Seoul[93] |
Lufthansa Cargo | Frankfurt, Hyderabad, Sharjah |
MASkargo | Bangalore, Delhi,[94]Kuala Lumpur–International |
Qatar Airways Cargo | Bangalore, Doha |
Quikjet Cargo | Bangalore, Delhi, Hyderabad, Mumbai |
Singapore Airlines Cargo | Amsterdam, Brussels, Dallas-Fort Worth, Los Angeles, Sharjah, Singapore |
SF Airlines | Shenzhen[95] |
Turkish Airlines Cargo | Dubai-Al Maktoum, Istanbul, Colombo |
Uni-Top Airlines | Kunming |
Uzbekistan Airways | Tashkent[96] |
Passenger Traffic[edit]
Top Domestic Destinations[edit]
Rank | City | Passengers | Carriers |
---|---|---|---|
1 | New Delhi | 2,814,354 | Air India, Go Air, Indigo, Jet Airways, Spicejet, Vistara |
2 | Mumbai | 2,651,778 | Air India, Go Air, Indigo, Jet Airways, Spicejet |
3 | Bangalore | 1,340,507 | Air Asia India, Air India, Indigo, Jet Airways, Spicejet |
4 | Hyderabad | 1,317,120 | Air Asia India, Air India, Indigo, Spicejet, Trujet |
5 | Kolkata | 1,262,258 | Air India, Indigo, Spicejet, Vistara |
6 | Pune | 1,023,000 | Go Air, Indigo, Jet Airways, Spicejet |
7 | Cochin | 978,534 | Air India, Indigo, Spicejet, Vistara |
8 | Coimbatore | 729,705 | Air India, Alliance Air, Indigo, Jet Airways, Spicejet |
9 | Madurai | 689,879 | Air India, Indigo, Spicejet |
10 | Port Blair | 647,789 | Air India, Go Air, Indigo, Spicejet, Vistara |
Fixed-base operators[edit]
Flight kitchen and caterers[edit]
TajSATS, a joint-venture of the Indian Hotels Company and SATS (formerly known as Singapore Airport Terminal Services) provides in-flight catering at Chennai Airport. TajSATS adheres to ISO 22000:2005 standards and achieved Halal Certification. It also manages airport lounges in Chennai and Mumbai airports.[98] The airline lounges at Chennai airport include Maharaja Lounge at the international terminal and the Indian Airlines Lounge at the domestic terminal.[99] The Taj Madras Flight Kitchen, a joint-venture of the Indian Hotels, SATS and Malaysia Airlines started in 1994,[100] is situated at GST Road, Pallavaram, and operates airport restaurants at the airport.[98] The Taj Madras Flight Kitchen also has a multi-cuisine restaurant with a full-fledged bar named 'Flights of Fancy' at the airport serving snacks and refreshments.[101]
MRO hangar facility[edit]
In 2008, Simplifly Deccan opened a US $2.9 million maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO) hangar at Chennai International Airport. The 70,000 sq ft facility can handle one A320 or two ATR aircraft and provides basic- and medium-level maintenance checks and protective storage for Deccan and Kingfisher Airlines aircraft and functions as a repair shop and assembly area. The hangar, which took nearly two years to build, has a total construction area of 3,200 sq m. The maintenance hall spans 46 m wide, 54 m deep and 17 m high. The hangar has space for one Airbus A320 and 2 ATR aircraft at one time. It is equipped with an engineering and training facility and an engineering maintenance conference room.[102]
Duty-free shops[edit]
Airport houses many duty-free shops and restaurants in its lobby. The authority is planning to open more shops in the premises. It is said that around 18,500 sq ft of space is available for shops. Recently, Flemingo International, Dubai was given the contract to open duty-free shops in both the International and Domestic terminals.[103][104]
Connectivity[edit]
Layout of the Chennai Metro
The airport is situated on the Grand Southern Trunk Road (National Highway 32), a major national highway connecting several cities within the state. The airport is served by Tirusulam railway station on the Suburban railway network. Airport prepaid taxis are available round the clock, with moderate fares fixed by the government. The airport metro station of the Chennai Metro connects the airport to other parts of the city, making it the second airport in India to be connected to a metro system.[105] Shuttle services between the metro station and the terminals are provided for the passengers.[106] In future, the concourse of the metro station will be linked to the passenger terminals by means of a connector tube connecting the metro station to the flyover at the terminals, so that passengers alighting from the train can go to the departure area of the airport terminals without coming out of the station building.[107] The Tirusulam suburban train station will also be integrated with the metro station and the airport.[108] A flyover at the entrance of the airport helps the traffic on GST road bypass the entrance. The Kathipara grade-separator at Guindy facilitates the traffic flowing from the city centre onto the airport side.
In 2018, a 600-meter-long travelator connecting the terminals was opened at a cost of ₹ 800 million.[109]
Greenery[edit]
A vertical garden was constructed in the terminals at a cost of ₹ 400 million. The garden has about 40 different varieties of plants. The garden is visible from the terminals and also the connecting tube that links the landside to the airside (the area closer to the runway). The garden is watered using the drip irrigation method.[110]
Future expansion[edit]
Expansion of present airport[edit]
An integrated simulator will be installed at Chennai airport, which will be the first of its kind in the country, at a cost of ₹ 20 crore. The equipment will be set up at the Air Traffic Services complex.[111]
In January 2018, a satellite terminal near the second runway was planned to be built in 3 years.[112] A 1.5 km tunnel to connect the satellite terminal with the main buildings has been planned at a cost of ₹7,000 million. This tunnel will run at a depth of 10.5 feet below the ground.[113]
Following the ₹23,000 million phase I expansion that began in 2007 and completed in 2013, the phase II expansion at a cost of ₹25,870 million is expected to begin in 2018, aimed to be completed in 42 months by September 2021. This will expand the area to 160,000 sq m, with a capacity of 35 million passengers, up from the existing capacity of 18 million. With the completion, the new building will serve as the international terminal, with the existing domestic and international terminals serving as domestic terminals.[114]
As of July 2018, the AAI had acquired 130 acres of land for the expansion of the present airport, and acquisition of another 101 acres of land is in progress.[115]
Second international airport[edit]
There is a current plan of setting up of a new greenfield airport at Sriperumbudur and Tiruvallur taluks, apart from the expansion of the existing airport at Tirusulam. The greenfield airport would come up on 2400 acre of land. About ₹ 20,000 crore will be invested in a greenfield airport near Chennai, says Tamil Nadu's vision 2023 document.[116]
The feasibility report of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which has suggested that a second airport for the city could come up on 5,000 acres (2,000 ha) at Sriperumbudur, was submitted to the state government. The four-runway second airport is proposed to be built on 4,823 acres near Sriperumbudur, South-west of Chennai, at an estimated cost of ₹ 3,500 crore in the first phase. Second phase not disclosed.[117] To be built in two phases, the anticipated expenditure for phase I of the project is ₹ 4,000 crore with an 87,000 sq m terminal along with a parking space for 750 vehicles. The second phase involves 1,50,000 sq m of terminal and enhancing parking space to accommodate 1,500 vehicles at an investment of ₹ 1,475 crore.[118] The greenfield airport will be able to handle 4 crore passengers annually.[116]
Incidents and accidents[edit]
- On 5 March 1999, Air France flight 6745, an ex-UTA Boeing 747-2B3F (SCD) freighter (registration F-GPAN) carrying a revenue load of 66 tonnes of cargo from Charles de Gaulle Airport [CDG], Paris to Madras [MAA] via Karachi [KHI] and Bangalore [BLR] crash-landed, caught fire and burned out. Madras ATC had cleared the aircraft for an ILS approach to the airport's runway 07. The crew abandoned the approach due to technical difficulties and the aircraft circled to attempt a second approach. At the end of the second approach, the aircraft's nose struck the runway while touching down because its nose gear was not locked. The plane skidded and came to rest 7,000 feet (2,100 m) down the 13,050 ft (3,980 m) runway. After it had come to a standstill, the crew noticed smoke on the flight deck and began to extinguish the flames. Soon after, flames erupted in the aircraft's front section. One crew member managed to escape from the flight deck via a rope ladder. The remaining four crew members were rescued by the airport fire service from the rear, before the flames engulfed the entire aircraft. The fire service was unable to extinguish the fire and the aircraft burned out.[119]
- On 29 September 1986, Indian Airlines flight IC 571, an Airbus A300b2-1c (registration VT-ELV), on a routine flight from Chennai to Mumbai, aborted take-off due to a bird-strike and suffered a runway excursion. No fatalities were reported. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair.
- In August 1984, a bomb blast 1,200 m from the airport killed 33 persons and injured 27 others. It was in old airport building situated near Meenambakkam railway station.[120] The entire concourse was razed down and had to be rebuilt.[121]
2015 Chennai floods[edit]
Aerial view of submerged Chennai airport
In December 2015, unprecedented rainfall associated with India's North-east monsoon caused extensive flooding of the airport tarmac and runways. The airport was closed for a week to all traffic by the Airports Authority of India from the evening of 1 December until noon on 6 December. About 1,500 passengers and 2,000 airport workers were evacuated as water entered terminal buildings and 30-35 aircraft were stranded on the apron.[122] Military authorities permitted the use of Naval Air Station INS Rajali in Arakkonam, 70 km (43 mi) west of central Chennai and Tambaram Air Force Station 20 km (12 mi) south as relief airports for a limited service of civilian commercial flights as well as official rescue/assistance flights.[123] Additionally, Indian Air Force evacuated passengers from Chennai airport to the two military bases for onward journeys on Air Force transport aircraft to other domestic destinations.[124] On 5 December, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation permitted a partial re-opening of the airport during daylight hours under visual meteorological conditions only, allowing airlines to ferry stranded aircraft out of Chennai without passengers or cargo on board. Operations under instrument meteorological conditions were not permitted. Rescue and assistance flights were however permitted to operate in and out of the airport.[125]
Awards[edit]
2010, 2011 and 2012, Airport of the year 'for cargo Handling' .[126][127][128]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Media related to Chennai International Airport at Wikimedia Commons
- Accident history for MAA at Aviation Safety Network
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